INFLUENCE OF PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP ON LOGISTICS PERFORMANCE AMONG MDA’S IN UGANDA A CASE STUDY OF  ENTEBBE EXPRESS

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the background of the study, the problem statement, purpose, objectives of the study, research questions, study scope, justification of the study, significance, hypotheses, conceptual framework, as well as operational definition of key terms and concepts.

• Background

The section presents, historical background, theoretical, contextual background, conceptual background.

1.2.1 Historical Background

The roots of logistics can be traced back to ancient civilizations such as Egypt, Greece, and Rome. These societies developed early logistics systems for military campaigns, trade, and food distribution. The Roman Empire, for example, built an extensive network of roads and supply chains to support its armies. Logistics at this stage focused on basic transportation and storage, with efficiency achieved through organization and manual coordination. Innovations such as railroads, steamships, and telegraph communication revolutionized supply chain operations (Black, 2021).

The industrial revolution ushered in mass production and global trade. Rail transport, mechanized warehouses, and the standardization of parts boosted logistics efficiency. Manufacturers and distributors began to integrate logistics into broader business strategies, aiming for cost reduction and faster delivery (Brice, 2023).

Technological advancements such as barcode scanning, computerized inventory systems, and Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems transformed logistics. Companies like Walmart and Dell led the way in using real-time data to streamline supply chains and reduce costs. Third-party logistics (3PL) providers emerged, offering specialized services in transportation, warehousing, and distribution, the focus shifted toward end-to-end efficiency, emphasizing coordination across suppliers, manufacturers, and retailers, the rise of e-commerce, globalization, and customer expectations for same-day delivery prompted new logistics models (Bamyaci, 2021).

Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) have become a vital strategy in addressing complex challenges in infrastructure development, including the logistics sector. Over the past few years, the annual investment in PPP projects has varied, reflecting both global economic conditions and regional priorities. In recent years, investments have shown a robust rebound following the COVID-19 pandemic. For instance, in the first half of 2023, global investments in PPP projects totaled $36.4 billion across 44 countries​ (Shareef et al., 2022), Despite a slight decrease in investment commitments compared to the same period in 2022, the number of projects increased, indicating a diversification in infrastructure development​ (Balcilar et al., 2023). Historically, the annual investment in PPP projects can range significantly by 2019, the total investment was approximately $96.7 billion across 409 projects, a slight decline from the previous year but still a substantial figure​ (Agarwal, Malhotra, & Dagar, 2023) ​. On average, over the past five years, the annual investment directed towards infrastructure projects in developing countries has been around $85.6 billion​ (Jin et al., 2024). However, these investments still fall short of the estimated $1.5 trillion needed annually to meet global infrastructure demands through 2030​ (Kitsai, et al., 2023), This gap underscores the importance of scaling up PPPs and improving the investment climate, particularly in developing and low-income countries.

Logistics efficiency, which involves the seamless movement of goods and services, is crucial for economic growth and competitiveness. The collaboration between public and private entities through PPPs can potentially enhance logistics infrastructure, reduce costs, and improve service quality (Li et al., 2023). PPPs are collaborative agreements between government entities and private sector companies designed to finance, build, and operate projects that serve the public. These partnerships leverage the strengths of both sectors public sector’s regulatory authority and private sector’s efficiency and innovation. By sharing risks, responsibilities, and resources, PPPs aim to deliver public services and infrastructure more effectively than traditional methods (Tavana et al., 2022).

Public–private partnerships (PPPs) are collaborative institutional arrangements between public and private entities for the planning, construction, and operation of infrastructure projects, where risks, costs, benefits, resources, and responsibilities are shared or redistributed (Koppenjaan, 2005, p. 137). These partnerships often create hybrid institutional structures, known as Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs), which align public and private interests (Weber, 1978) to finance, build, and manage public infrastructure and services, addressing the fiscal challenges of modern governments (Biygutane, 2022, p. 64). Globally, many governments have adopted PPPs, also referred to as private finance initiatives (PFIs), as procurement and delivery models to leverage the capabilities and resources of private enterprises (Quelin et al., 2019, p. 831).

One key reason for the adoption of PPPs is their potential to foster innovation. The 1998 Forty Seventh Report by the House of Commons highlights that PPPs enable the public sector to benefit from innovations that would otherwise be unattainable, stating that “the exploitation of private sector innovation is critical to the success of the PFI in delivering improved value for money” (Paragraph 26). Innovation is frequently mentioned in academic literature on PPPs (Ma et al., 2019), and the World Bank emphasizes that significant public sector benefits can arise from private sector innovation within PPP contracts (Parrado & Reynaers, 2020; Schoeni, 2018; Kuchina-Musina & Morris, 2022).

Although PPPs are recognized to involve high transaction costs (Xiong et al., 2022), they are also seen as a means to promote innovation and reduce public sector risk by involving private entities (Leiringer, 2006). Financial incentives linked to PPPs, such as residual control rights or asset ownership, are believed to motivate private investors to seek innovations that improve efficiency, lower costs, and maximize returns (Iossa & Martimort, 2015). Hoppe and Schmitz (2013) note that PPPs are driven primarily by incentives. Maltin (2019) also points to the significant role private investment plays in global infrastructure projects, essential for addressing major challenges (Xiong et al., 2020).

Efficient logistics systems are critical for economic development. They facilitate trade, ensure timely delivery of goods, and support supply chain management. Key components of logistics include transportation infrastructure, warehousing, inventory management, and information technology (Deneha et al., 2023), High logistics efficiency reduces operational costs, enhances customer satisfaction, and increases the global competitiveness of businesses (Kumar, 2022).

 

 

 

1.2.2 Theoretical Background

Transaction Cost Theory (TCT), as developed by Oliver Williamson, posits that organizations should structure their transactions in ways that minimize the costs associated with coordination, negotiation, enforcement, and information gathering. In the context of Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs), TCT provides a useful lens for understanding how various types of partnerships can be structured to reduce inefficiencies and enhance logistics performance, particularly in public infrastructure projects such as the Entebbe Expressway (Hennart, & Verbeke, 2022).

PPPs are contractual arrangements between public agencies and private sector entities designed to deliver public infrastructure or services. TCT explains that by aligning each party’s competencies with the tasks they are best suited to perform, transaction costs can be minimized. This theoretical framework is particularly relevant for understanding how different types of PPPs each with varying levels of risk allocation, asset specificity, and contractual complexity can improve logistics performance among government agencies in Uganda (Silva, 2021).

Concession agreements are long-term contracts where a private partner is responsible for financing, building, and operating an infrastructure asset before eventually transferring it to the public sector. According to TCT, such long-term contracts reduce transaction costs associated with frequent renegotiations, performance monitoring, and uncertainty. In the case of the Entebbe Expressway, concession agreements streamline procurement and operational processes by clearly defining roles and expectations, which enhances logistics coordination between public agencies such as UNRA and private operators (Hoffmeister,2018).

BOT contracts involve the private sector designing, constructing, operating, and maintaining infrastructure projects before transferring them to the government. TCT supports this model due to its risk-sharing mechanism; it allocates project and operational risks to the party best equipped to handle them. For UNRA, a BOT arrangement allows for reduced asset acquisition costs and operational inefficiencies. The private sector’s expertise in logistics can ensure the timely transportation and delivery of materials, reducing overall transaction costs (Nepal, 2021).

Service contracts are typically short-term and focus on the delivery of specific tasks such as maintenance or toll collection. TCT posits that such contracts are appropriate for standardized, routine tasks where asset specificity and uncertainty are low. These contracts reduce overhead costs for public agencies by outsourcing non-core logistics activities. However, TCT also warns that these may increase monitoring and enforcement costs if not well-governed. In the context of the Entebbe Expressway, service contracts allow UNRA to avoid the complexity and cost of managing certain logistics services directly.

A joint venture is a collaborative arrangement where both public and private entities share ownership and decision-making authority. TCT views joint ventures as effective for managing high-asset-specific transactions that require mutual commitment and shared resources. This model reduces bargaining and coordination costs by fostering cooperation through shared incentives. For example, UNRA might collaborate with private logistics firms to co-manage advanced traffic management or rest-stop infrastructure, leading to improved logistics performance.

Under management contracts, private firms are tasked with overseeing operations without owning the infrastructure. This aligns with TCT principles by allowing the public agency to benefit from private sector expertise without incurring the cost of internal capacity development. Management contracts can lower transaction costs by improving service delivery through professional oversight while retaining asset ownership within the public sector. For UNRA, such arrangements can be valuable for managing road maintenance systems or traffic monitoring, thereby improving logistics outcomes. Transaction Cost Theory provides a robust theoretical foundation for understanding how different PPP models can influence logistics performance. By examining the specific characteristics of concession agreements, BOTs, service contracts, joint ventures, and management contracts, TCT helps identify how these arrangements reduce search, negotiation, and enforcement costs. In the case of the Entebbe Expressway, applying appropriate PPP models enables the Uganda National Roads Authority (UNRA) to optimize logistics efficiency, reduce operational costs, and ensure timely service delivery.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.2.3 Conceptual Background

A Public-Private Partnership (PPP) is a cooperative arrangement between public sector entities (such as government agencies) and private sector companies. These partnerships are designed to finance, build, operate, or manage infrastructure projects or services that are traditionally provided by the public sector while according to world Bank, PPP is a long-term contract between a private party and a government entity for providing a public asset or service, where the private party bears significant risk and management responsibility (Buranbayeva, et al., 2021). According to Hodge and Greve (2007), they define PPP as “A cooperative institutional arrangement between public and private sector actors.

Logistics is the process of planning, implementing, and controlling the efficient flow and storage of goods, services, and related information from the point of origin to the point of consumption to meet customer requirements (Tien, Anh, & Thuc, 2019).

The European Investment Bank (EIB) defines PPP as a partnership where the public sector seeks to leverage the efficiency, expertise, and financing capacity of the private sector to deliver public services or infrastructure, while sharing risks and rewards. In another definition The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) defines PPP is an agreement between the government and one or more private sector entities, in which the private sector provides public services or projects in return for financial compensation or other forms of support. National Council for Public-Private Partnerships (NCPPP) Defines PPP is a contractual agreement between a public agency and a private sector entity, through which the skills and assets of both sectors are shared to deliver a service or facility for public use, with each party bearing a portion of the risks and rewards.

1.2.4 Contextual Background

Uganda’s formal embrace of PPPs began with the enactment of the Public-Private Partnership Act, 2015, which provided the regulatory framework to promote private sector participation in infrastructure projects. This legislation outlines the roles of the government and private entities, enabling clear risk-sharing, transparency, and accountability in the procurement and management of PPP projects. The establishment of the PPP Unit under the Ministry of Finance, Planning, and Economic Development further institutionalized the framework, making it easier for MDAs (Ministries, Departments, and Agencies) to adopt PPP models. Despite the potential of PPPs to bridge Uganda’s infrastructure deficit, their implementation has faced several challenges. These include lengthy procurement processes, inadequate capacity within public institutions to manage complex contracts, and limited access to affordable financing for private sector partners. Nevertheless, successful PPP projects such as the Entebbe Expressway, Bujagali Hydropower Plant, and the Kampala-Jinja Expressway have demonstrated the model’s capacity to deliver critical infrastructure while minimizing the burden on public finances. In Uganda, PPPs are seen as essential for achieving the National Development Plan (NDP III) objectives, particularly in enhancing infrastructure and social services to stimulate industrialization and job creation. The government continues to explore avenues for improving the regulatory environment, risk management, and project financing to encourage more private sector participation in priority sectors. As Uganda continues to grapple with growing urbanization, population pressures, and fiscal constraints, PPPs remain a promising strategy for promoting sustainable development and improving public service delivery across the country.

1.3 Statement of the problem

Despite a global resurgence in Public-Private Partnership (PPP) investments following the COVID-19 pandemic, many developing countries including Uganda continue to face significant gaps in meeting their annual infrastructure demands. In Kampala, where the logistics sector is vital for trade facilitation, economic growth, and regional competitiveness, the effective integration of PPPs into infrastructure development remains limited. While PPPs are recognized for their potential to streamline logistics operations, enhance collaboration, and improve efficiency, their implementation in Uganda, particularly through the Uganda National Roads Authority (UNRA), is hampered by numerous socio-economic, institutional, and technical challenges (Naji, Gunduz, & Naser, 2022).

Key barriers include inadequate financing, limited access to quality construction materials, insufficient technical expertise, and weak regulatory enforcement. Moreover, issues such as poor road conditions, especially in urban areas—where over 60% of traffic accidents occur (Randa & Baporikar, 2022) highlight the urgency for resilient and sustainable infrastructure solutions. The transition from traditional road construction to design-build PPP models offers a transformative opportunity, yet also introduces complexities in project coordination, risk management, and regulatory compliance (Mukiibi & Machyo, 2021).

Therefore, this study seeks to investigate how PPPs influence logistics performance within UNRA, with a focus on identifying and addressing the key challenges affecting the successful adoption of design-build approaches. These include communication breakdowns, limited stakeholder collaboration, inefficient project management, and difficulties in meeting quality and compliance standards (Kitenda, 2022). Addressing these issues is critical for unlocking the full potential of PPPs as a catalyst for sustainable infrastructure development and enhanced logistics efficiency in Uganda.

1.4 Purpose of the study

The study will examine the influence of public private partnership on logistics efficiency among MDA’s in Uganda a case study of UNRA

1.4 Objectives

• To examine the influence of design build and operate on logistics efficiency.
• To establish the relation between PPP concessions on logistics efficiency.
• To investigate the influence of public private joint ventures on logistics efficiency.

1.5 Research questions

• What is the influence of design build and operate on logistics efficiency?
• What is the relation between PPP concessions on logistics efficiency?
• What is the influence of public private joint ventures on logistics efficiency?

1.6 Scope of the study

This section will include; content scope, time scope and geographical scope.

1.7 Scope of the study

This section will include; influence of design build and operate, PPP concessions, public private joint ventures on logistics efficiency.

1.7.1 Content scope

The study content will include; the influence of design build and operate, PPP concessions and public private joint ventures on logistics efficiency.

1.7.1 Time scope

The time will include; the study will include literature for the last 10 years and the period of study will take 1 year.

1.7.2 Geographical scope

The headquarters of UNRA are located in the UAP Nakawa Business Park, at 3-5 New Port Bell Road, in the Nakawa Division of Kampala, Uganda’s capital and largest city. The geographical coordinates of UNRA’s headquarters are:0°19’40.0″N, 32°36’46.0″E (Longitude:0.327778; Latitude:32.612778).

1.8 Significance of the study;

 

Firstly, PPPs have emerged as a critical strategy for addressing infrastructure gaps, particularly in logistics, where efficient movement of goods and services is essential for economic growth. The increasing reliance on PPPs in logistics infrastructure development is a response to the growing demands of global trade, economic competitiveness, and the challenges governments face in financing large-scale projects. By leveraging private sector innovation, PPPs offer solutions to the logistical inefficiencies that hinder economic development, especially in developing countries.

Secondly, the study highlights the role of PPPs in fostering innovation within logistics. PPP arrangements allow the public sector to benefit from private sector expertise in areas such as technology, process optimization, and cost reduction. By sharing risks and responsibilities, these partnerships can lead to improved service quality and reduced operational costs, enhancing logistics efficiency and supporting economic competitiveness.

Furthermore, the research underscores the importance of scaling up investments in PPP projects. The current investment trends, while significant, still fall short of the estimated annual requirements to meet global infrastructure demands, especially in developing nations. The findings of this study can inform policy recommendations aimed at improving the investment climate and scaling up PPP initiatives in Uganda, where infrastructure development is crucial for economic advancement.

Finally, the study is relevant to policymakers, logistics companies, and public agencies seeking to understand the potential of PPPs to enhance logistics performance. It provides insights into how effective collaboration between public and private sectors can reduce transaction costs, improve logistics systems, and contribute to broader economic development goals.

By examining the impact of PPPs on logistics efficiency, this research contributes to the existing body of knowledge and provides a framework for improving infrastructure delivery in Uganda’s logistics sector.

1.9 Justification

Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) have gained significant importance globally as a strategy to address infrastructure challenges, particularly in developing nations like Uganda. This study is justified by the growing role of PPPs in enhancing logistics efficiency and supporting public sector performance. Logistics infrastructure, such as transportation networks, warehousing, and inventory management, is crucial for economic growth and competitiveness, and the collaboration between public and private sectors through PPPs offers a potential solution to improving these systems.

Despite global investment in PPP projects showing a steady increase in recent years, a considerable gap remains in meeting global infrastructure demands, especially in low-income countries. This is evident in Uganda, where critical logistics sectors face challenges in funding, technical expertise, and operational efficiency. The study addresses this gap by exploring how PPPs, particularly in the logistics sector, can be leveraged to enhance service delivery, reduce operational costs, and improve overall performance.

In Uganda, the government’s commitment to PPPs, demonstrated through legislative efforts such as the Public-Private Partnership Act of 2015, emphasizes the strategic role PPPs play in bridging the infrastructure deficit. Successful PPP projects like the Entebbe Expressway and Bujagali Hydropower Plant further validate the effectiveness of this model. However, the challenges of lengthy procurement processes, risk management, and limited private sector financing underscore the need for further investigation into optimizing PPP models for logistics.

This study is particularly timely given the recent rebound in global PPP investments following the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as Uganda’s ongoing efforts to stimulate economic growth through infrastructure development. By examining the role of PPPs in logistics performance, the study will contribute to the knowledge base on how public sector entities such as KCCA (Kampala Capital City Authority) can collaborate with private partners to enhance efficiency, reduce transaction costs, and manage risks effectively.

Understanding the transactional cost benefits of PPPs, particularly through Transactional Cost Theory (TCT), provides a theoretical foundation for evaluating how such partnerships can optimize logistics in Uganda. Therefore, this study not only fills a critical research gap but also offers practical insights for policymakers and stakeholders looking to improve Uganda’s infrastructure development and service delivery through innovative PPP approaches.

1.10 CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK

 

PPP (IV)                                                                     LOGISTICS EFFICIENCY (DV)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The actual literature will be reviewed objective by objective, and the sources of literature reviewed include; secondary sources especially text books, journals, newspapers, research dissertations, government reports and publications, and primary source, especially pilot study that was carried out.

2.2 Theoretical Review

Transaction Cost Theory (TCT) argues that organizations aim to minimize the costs of economic exchanges by choosing the most efficient governance structure—either internal production or market-based outsourcing. Within this framework, Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) are viewed as a strategic response to reduce transaction costs in public service delivery, particularly in logistics. For entities like the Uganda National Roads Authority (UNRA), TCT suggests that outsourcing logistics functions to private actors can enhance efficiency, reduce administrative overheads, and improve service delivery through access to superior private-sector technology and expertise. CT assumes that organizations make decisions purely on the basis of cost efficiency. This narrow focus often overlooks other vital objectives in public service delivery, such as equity, public accountability, and long-term strategic value. In the context of UNRA, decisions about infrastructure and logistics involve political, social, and developmental goals that cannot always be reduced to transaction costs. TCT is grounded in the idea that actors are rational and capable of objectively evaluating all transaction-related costs. In reality, public institutions like UNRA operate in complex environments with bureaucratic constraints, incomplete information, and competing interests that limit purely rational decision-making.

The theory assumes balanced relationships in partnerships. However, in many PPPs, especially in developing countries, private partners may wield disproportionate influence due to greater resources, expertise, and negotiation power. This can lead to contract terms that favor private firms at the expense of public value, undermining the intended cost efficiencies.

TCT acknowledges that contracts are incomplete, but it tends to underplay the consequences. In PPP arrangements, future contingencies such as economic shocks or policy changes—can render original contracts obsolete or contested. This may lead to renegotiations, legal disputes, or performance failures, as is sometimes observed in Uganda’s infrastructure sector.

While TCT supports the idea of risk-sharing in PPPs, it often fails to account for how poorly designed partnerships can transfer excessive risks to either party. In practice, if the private sector underperforms or defaults, the public entity (UNRA) bears the brunt of logistical disruptions, public dissatisfaction, and financial burdens.

TCT is largely context-neutral and does not adequately incorporate the influence of institutional quality, regulatory frameworks, or corruption—factors that significantly shape the success of PPPs in Uganda. Without considering these contextual realities, the theoretical predictions of TCT may not hold summary, while Transaction Cost Theory provides a foundational framework to understand why UNRA might engage in PPPs to enhance logistics efficiency, it is limited by its reductionist view of organizational behavior and governance. A more comprehensive approach would incorporate not only cost considerations but also institutional, political, and social dimensions that influence the real-world outcomes of PPPs in Uganda..

2.3 Conceptual review of the literature

Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) are collaborations between government entities and private sector companies aimed at delivering public goods or services through the expertise, resources, and capital of both sectors. PPPs are increasingly used in sectors such as transportation, infrastructure, and logistics, with the goal of improving efficiency, reducing costs, and ensuring effective service delivery (Cui et al., 2018). The application of PPPs in logistics, particularly within public sector operations, has emerged as a mechanism to address the growing demand for efficient supply chain management, timely delivery of services, and optimization of resource use. The logistics sector involves the management of supply chains, transportation, warehousing, and distribution of goods. Efficiency in logistics is measured by factors such as speed, cost-effectiveness, reliability, and the ability to adapt to dynamic market conditions. Traditionally, public sector logistics has been challenged by inefficiencies related to bureaucracy, outdated technologies, and budgetary constraints. PPPs present an opportunity to leverage private sector innovation and investment to address these challenges. Logistics efficiency can be defined as the ability of a logistics system to achieve maximum output with minimum input, often through optimizing resources and processes. Efficiency improvements in logistics involve, Minimizing operational and transportation costs, Enhancing the speed and reliability of the distribution process, Effective use of manpower, technology, and infrastructure and mitigating supply chain risks through strategic partnerships (Lee et al., 2021). Public-Private Partnerships offer a promising approach to improving logistics efficiency by leveraging the expertise, technology, and resources of the private sector. By fostering innovation, reducing costs, and improving responsiveness, PPPs can address many of the inefficiencies traditionally associated with public sector logistics. However, successful implementation depends on clear contractual arrangements, effective risk-sharing mechanisms, and a focus on mutual goals of improving service delivery and operational efficiency.

2.4 Actual review

This section will present the literature review of the study in line with study objectives.

 

2.4.1 Influence of design build and operate on logistics efficiency

Logistics deals with the overall process of planning, coordinating, and executing several tasks related to the purchase, supply, storage, transportation, maintenance, and handling of resources such as materials, labour, and equipment (Magill et al., 2020). The history of logistics goes back to times of war when troops had to be supported. Logistics nowadays is closely connected with satisfying the customer (Gourdin, 2016). Logistics is considered to be at the core of any firm’s value chain. The value chain consists of a unique set of activities that an enterprise performs on a day-to-day basis to achieve competitive advantage. Logistics thus directly affects a firm’s sustainable competitive advantage by adding value to its value chain (Porter, 2015). The fast development of knowledge in logistics, largely attributed to the fast advancement in information technology, is an important driver of logistics management (Bowersox et al., 2019).

Design-build (DB) is a project delivery method where both design and construction services are integrated under one contract, with a single point of responsibility (Design-Build Institute of America, 2014). It has gained increasing popularity globally, including in the U.S., due to its advantages such as shorter project timelines, early cost certainty, and a streamlined responsibility structure for clients (Hale et al., 2019), with the growing number of DB projects in the U.S., several empirical studies have examined its performance in comparison to other delivery methods; Generally, DB has demonstrated superiority over traditional methods in terms of time and cost efficiency (Xia et al., 2012).

Construction projects frequently encounter time and cost overruns, especially with the increasing complexity of modern projects, resulting in substantial financial losses for owners (Assaf & Al-Hejji, 2006). As a procurement method, DB addresses these challenges effectively by encouraging the overlap of design and construction phases, reducing change orders, and providing early cost certainty through lump-sum contracts. Additionally, the DB method ensures greater control over design, scope, and budget, leading to higher chances of staying within schedule and budget (Shrestha, 2023).

Over time, several studies have investigated DB project performance, particularly in terms of cost and schedule outcomes. Comparative studies across project delivery methods have found that DB projects experience significantly less cost and schedule growth compared to design-bid-build (DBB) projects (Bilgin et al., 2024). Inaccuracies in cost estimates under uncertain conditions often lead to cost overruns, a major concern for construction stakeholders. Cost overruns in highway projects, for instance, have raised doubts about the efficiency of public agencies and attracted scholarly attention towards identifying factors contributing to these overruns.

In DB project delivery, selecting the right procurement method is crucial to success. The four main procurement approaches low-bid, best value, qualifications-based, and sole-source—differ in terms of cost and schedule performance. Studies have shown that the two-step best value method results in the least cost and schedule growth due to its well-defined project scope and short-listing of qualified bidders, unlike the one-step low-bid method, which selects contractors solely based on price, often resulting in higher cost growth due to change orders (Molenaar et al., 1999; Xia et al., 2012). Best value procurement typically leads to improved project performance through careful contractor selection based on both qualifications and price, ensuring better project outcomes.

Project complexity is another key factor influencing DB contract performance. Complex designs, challenging site conditions, and unique project requirements can create significant challenges for DB teams, impacting cost, schedule, and quality (Riveros et al., 2022; Khalef & El-Adaway, 2023). Effective communication and collaboration among stakeholders are critical for addressing these challenges. Studies have highlighted that fostering trust and collaboration throughout the project lifecycle improves DB project performance (Hang et al., 2022). Additionally, risk management strategies, such as risk allocation and contingency planning, are essential for mitigating uncertainties that could affect cost and schedule.

The composition of the project team and quality of leadership also play a significant role in DB contract performance. Multidisciplinary teams led by experienced managers often achieve better results, as strong leadership and conflict resolution skills are critical in overcoming project challenges (Feng et al., 2022). The procurement process itself influences project success by selecting contractors with the right qualifications, past performance, and compatibility with the project team (Larsson et al., 2022).

 

Collaboration is a key factor in the success of DB projects. Researchers agree that effective collaboration, involving all stakeholders working together toward common goals, is essential in overcoming the complexities of construction projects (Ozturk et al., 2016). Partnering, a collaborative method that shifts away from traditional adversarial relationships, enhances cooperation through tools such as joint objectives, workshops, and risk management (Bayliss et al., 2004).

In DB contracts, the owner enters into a single contract with a design-build entity, often managed by a general contractor. This provides the owner with a single point of responsibility for both design and construction, although it may limit the owner’s control over certain aspects of the project. However, the inclusion of design, construction, financing, and even operation in some cases (known as design-build-plus) offers further benefits, including faster project delivery through concurrent design and construction phases, and earlier project completion, leading to earlier revenue generation (Ssimbwa, 2023). Effective collaboration between the owner and design-builder is crucial for aligning objectives and mitigating risks associated with early construction starts (Afayo, 2021). Despite some risks, the DB method ensures competitive quality, as the design-builder bears full responsibility for the project (Mutikanga et al., 2022).

Poor collaboration among project participants has been recognized as a significant barrier to achieving project objectives, including health and safety (H&S) goals (Sebastian, 2011; Akintan & Morledge, 2013; Faris, Gaterell & Hutchinson, 2019). Scholars have criticized the construction industry (CI) for its inadequate relationships among clients, designers, and contractors, identifying poor collaboration as a key shortcoming (Sebastian, 2011; Akintan & Morledge, 2013; Faris et al., 2019). Various professionals, including project managers, designers, engineers, construction managers, and H&S experts, play vital roles in promoting H&S in construction projects. However, despite these efforts, the CI continues to experience accidents, injuries, and health issues at unacceptably high rates (Mroszczyk, 2015: 67; Okorie, 2014). This poor H&S performance is worsened by a lack of collaboration (Mroszczyk, 2015; Olsen, 2012). This article aims to conduct a systematic literature review to identify collaborative factors that can enhance H&S performance in the CI.

Gransberg and Senadheera (1999) conducted a study similar to that of Palaneeswaran and Kumaraswamy, focusing on categorizing methods for awarding design-build contracts in transportation construction. They classified these methods into three groups: low bid, adjusted score, and best value. In the low-bid selection, resembling the traditional Design-Bid-Build (DBB) approach, the contract is awarded to the bidder with the lowest responsive bid. For the adjusted score method, separate technical and price proposals are submitted and assessed. The technical proposals receive a score out of 100, and the price proposals are divided by the technical score to produce an adjusted score. The contract is then awarded to the bidder with the lowest adjusted score. In contrast, the best value selection also involves separate evaluations of technical and price proposals but assesses them together using a predetermined weighting scheme that includes price and various qualitative categories, resulting in a weighted score for each project. The difference in weighted scores between the lowest and next-lowest bidders is compared to the percentage difference in total cost, and if the increment is justifiable, the process is repeated with the next lowest bidder until the difference is no longer justified, at which point the contract is awarded (Deacon, 2016).

Design-build projects represent a transformative shift in the construction sector, emphasizing a cooperative and integrated approach to project execution (Nunes, 2021). This literature review explores the critical importance of collaboration and integration in ensuring the success of design-build projects. Through a comprehensive analysis of existing research, the review aims to elucidate the various dimensions of collaboration, its impact on project outcomes, and the factors that either facilitate or hinder its effectiveness.

The Design-Build (DB) model offers an alternative project delivery approach in which a single entity, known as the design-build team, collaborates under a single contract with the building owner. This team oversees both design and construction services (Design-Build Institute of America, 2014). In this model, the building owner works with one design-build team to strategize, execute, and manage the entire project from inception to occupancy (Construction Management Association of America, 2011). The DB model promotes early integration of the team during the design phase and provides a collaborative framework that merges architectural and engineering design services with construction management within a single contractual agreement.

The construction industry possesses unique characteristics that necessitate specific literature distinct from general innovation research. Notable differences include complex value chains, project-based activities, and the regulatory constraints that often create a conservative framework (Bygballe and Ingemansson, 2014). Consequently, the construction industry is often viewed independently of the broader industrial context. The project environment represents one of these unique characteristics that limits the implementation of innovation, as it is typically executed during the project rather than within the company itself.

 

Learning must be effectively managed to capitalize on opportunities that enhance the innovation process for companies (Tidd et al., 2011). This learning can be divided into two primary aspects: the acquisition of new knowledge and the feedback received. Acquiring new knowledge relies on external resources and the company’s ability to incorporate this knowledge, forming a self-reinforcing cycle where increased knowledge acquisition facilitates further learning (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990). Feedback allows companies to understand the outcomes of innovation and learn from experiences (Tidd et al., 2011). Evaluating the knowledge adopted can be challenging when multiple parties are involved or when they do not participate throughout the entire process. Mechanisms to improve this situation include fostering longer relationships among construction players, ensuring parties are engaged throughout projects, facilitating dialogue, and building trust (Anheim and Widen, 2021).

Design-build projects delegate responsibility for both design and construction phases to a single entity, promoting seamless workflows and collaborative efforts (Kannengiesser, 2023). This unified approach contrasts with traditional project delivery methods, highlighting the importance of a cohesive team working toward a shared goal. Wang et al. (2023) observe the evolving nature of design-build projects, noting their increasing prevalence and the industry’s gradual shift away from fragmented processes.

The foundation of design-build projects lies in effective collaboration that transcends traditional divisions between designers and builders. Al Asali (2021) emphasizes the necessity of transparent communication channels, mutual trust, and shared objectives among project teams. Additionally, findings from Wang et al. (2023) underscore the significance of early engagement of all stakeholders, facilitating interdisciplinary collaboration and informed decision-making.

In the digital age, technology plays a pivotal role in enhancing collaboration within design-build projects. Building Information Modeling (BIM), for instance, provides a unified platform for real-time collaboration among project stakeholders (Azhar et al., 2019). The existing literature suggests that the integration of technological tools not only benefits communication but also streamlines project processes and improves overall project performance.

2.4.2 The relation between PPP concessions on logistics efficiency

Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) have been adopted as a procurement mechanism to alleviate fiscal pressure on the public sector while transferring responsibilities to the private sector through leveraging Special Purpose Vehicle’s (SPV) expertise (Hodge and Greve, 2016). These partnerships are expected to yield efficiency advantages through risk sharing, private sector leverage and bundled responsibilities, resulting in lifecycle cost reduction, effective cost control, timely delivery, adherence to quality standards, efficient operation, risk mitigation and optimized maintenance (Oliveros-Romero and Aibinu, 2019; Ottaviani et al., 2024). Moreover, they involve the public sector purchasing services from the private sector, surpassing mere asset acquisition. This approach fosters collaboration, leveraging private sector short-term financing and expertise to achieve cost-effectiveness (Akbiyiklietal.,2012). Furthermore, PPPs allow governments to offer new infrastructure and services with minimal upfront capital expenditure (Engel et al., 2013).

One pivotal aspect intrinsic to a PPP contract is the concession period, denoting the timeframe within which the SPV assumes the responsibilities of financing, constructing, maintaining and operating a public asset before transferring it back to the public sector (Castelblanco et al., 2025). The concession period length carries relevant implications. Primarily, extended concession periods heighten risks and uncertainties related to the social, political and economic conditions, consequently impacting the project (Cruz and Marques, 2013). Moreover, longer concession periods result in elevated operational expenses (OPEX) for the SPV, attributed to increased labor costs, upgrades and maintenance (Nguyen et al., 2021). Longer concession periods may necessitate higher capital expenditures (CAPEX) to enhance performance over the long term (Castelblanco et al., 2024). Prolonged concession periods also translate to extended payback periods for the SPVs, potentially triggering adverse consequences on public funding in the long run (Jin et al., 2019). Recognizing the factors driving the duration of the concession period is then of paramount importance to the outcomes of PPP projects.

Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) have gained prominence as a strategic approach to delivering public services and infrastructure projects. Among the various types of PPPs, concessions stand out as a model where the government grants a private entity the right to operate and manage public assets for a specified period.  PPP concessions are contractual agreements between public authorities and private firms, allowing the latter to operate and maintain public services or infrastructure while generating revenue, a concession typically involves the transfer of risk and operational responsibilities to the private sector, where the government retains ownership of the asset.

Transport PPPs are commonly funded through a combination of user fees and government payments, which are closely related to the concession period (Engel et al., 2020). In transportation PPPs, traditionally, the long-term funding often relies on direct tolls paid by users during the operation phase. However, to address public concerns, alternative payment models emerged, increasingly relying on government funding rather than users. These alternative payment mechanisms encompass shadow tolling and availability payments. Each mechanism impacts the project’s financial conditions and the distribution of risks between the parties. In the case of shadow tolls, the public sector is responsible for compensating the SPV based on the number of vehicles using the road. This approach was initially used in UKroad projects as a transition step toward direct tolls, with the shadow toll rate varying with traffic volume (Villalba-RomeroandLiyanage,2016).ShadowtollsarepreferredinsometransportationPPP projects because the SPV’s compensation is directly tied to the number of vehicles using the infrastructure, incentivizing them to maintain the facility to attract more users while offering a stable revenue stream for the private partner, especially in the long term. However, shadow tolls also come with some drawbacks. This payment mechanism may lead to increased payments due tooptimistic projections underestimating the concession period required unless a cap is imposed due to the traffic risk allocated to the public administration (Acerete et al., 2019). The public sector retains the responsibility for payments based on usage, which can create potential financial burdens and concerns regarding overcompensation. Additionally, this mechanism may not always align incentives entirely with the public interest, as the SPV compensation is solely linked to usage and may not consider other crucial factors like efficiency or environmental impact.

The private sector manages and operates existing public assets, often focusing on service delivery. The private sector constructs new infrastructure, operates it for a defined period, and then transfers ownership back to the government (Zhang et al., 2009).

PPPs can leverage private sector investment, reducing the burden on public finances. This is particularly crucial in developing economies with limited capital (Hodge & Greve, 2007). The private sector’s involvement often brings in efficiency gains and innovative practices due to competitive pressures and profit incentives (Estache & Serebrisky, 2004). By transferring risks such as construction delays, operational inefficiencies, and demand uncertainties, PPP concessions can lead to more balanced project delivery (World Bank, 2010).

Negotiating and managing PPP contracts can be complex, leading to misunderstandings and disputes (Cruz & Marques, 2013). There may be public resistance to privatization of public services, especially if citizens perceive that the quality of services declines (Sclar, 2000).There is a risk that private entities prioritize profit over public welfare, particularly in essential services where affordability is a concern (Bult-Spiering & Dewulf, 2006).

A study by Zhang et al. (2009) on BOT projects in China found that PPP concessions significantly improved infrastructure delivery times compared to traditional public procurement methods. In a study examining PPPs in the health sector in South Africa, Pienaar et al. (2014) found that concessions led to improved service delivery but highlighted issues related to cost overruns and accountability. A comparative analysis of transport infrastructure projects in Europe showed that PPP concessions led to higher project completion rates and better financial performance compared to publicly funded projects (Gomez-Ibanez, 2003).

PPP contracts often include specific performance metrics that encourage accountability. Wang and Li (2017) note that clear performance indicators enhance the logistics efficiency of public services, as private entities are motivated to meet or exceed contractual obligations, While the benefits of PPP concessions are well-documented, challenges remain. Some studies, such as that by Vining and Boardman (2008), argue that the complexity of negotiating and managing PPP contracts can lead to inefficiencies. Additionally, a lack of transparency in operations can result in misalignment of goals between public and private partners. Moreover, governance issues may arise, particularly in monitoring performance and ensuring compliance with contractual terms (Hodge & Greve, 2007).

Numerous case studies have been conducted to examine the effectiveness of PPP concessions in enhancing logistics efficiency. For instance, the concession of port operations in various countries has demonstrated significant improvements in cargo handling times and customer satisfaction (Bichou & Gray, 2004). Similarly, the PPP model employed in the management of urban transport systems in cities like London has led to reductions in traffic congestion and improved logistical flows (Jenkins, 2016).

Despite the growing body of literature on PPP concessions and logistics efficiency, several gaps persist. Most studies tend to focus on specific sectors, such as transportation or warehousing, without providing a holistic view of logistics as an interconnected system. Additionally, there is limited research on the long-term impacts of PPP concessions on logistics efficiency, particularly in developing countries. Future research should explore these dimensions, incorporating diverse case studies to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the implications of PPP concessions on logistics efficiency.

PPP concessions hold significant potential for enhancing logistics efficiency through resource optimization, risk-sharing, and innovative financial solutions. While the benefits are evident, challenges remain, particularly regarding governance and contract management. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) represent an effective strategy for attracting private funding for road construction and maintenance. These long-term contracts between the public and private sectors aim to deliver public services and infrastructure across various sectors, including transportation, energy, environment, health, security, and education. In numerous countries, PPPs have gained popularity as a means of procuring infrastructure and public services, enabling governments to secure essential developments without resorting to tax increases or incurring immediate debt. The public sector actively encourages private sector participation in infrastructure projects, whether in developing or developed nations. The primary goal is to bridge the gap between the increasing demand for road infrastructure and the constraints of government budgets, as well as to counteract the inefficiencies associated with traditional public procurement methods in addressing infrastructure deficits. In recent decades, the growing adoption of PPPs has sparked significant research interest, leading to a notable increase in published articles and a diverse range of topics, fields of study, and methodological approaches.

2.4.3 Influence of public private joint ventures on logistics efficiency

 

Public-private partnerships (PPPs) offer a promising strategy for securing private funding for road construction and maintenance. These long-term contracts between the public and private sectors are designed to deliver public services and infrastructure, spanning sectors such as transportation, energy, environment, health, security, and education. In numerous countries, PPPs are gaining traction as an effective method for acquiring infrastructure and public services, enabling governments to enhance infrastructure without raising taxes or incurring immediate debt. The public sector actively encourages private sector participation in infrastructure projects, both in developing and developed nations, aiming to bridge the gap between the increasing demand for road infrastructure and the constraints of government budgets, as well as the shortcomings of traditional public procurement methods. In recent decades, the growing adoption of PPPs has sparked heightened research interest, leading to a significant rise in published articles covering a diverse array of topics, fields of study, and methodological approaches.

 

Public-Private Joint Ventures (PPJVs) represent a collaborative arrangement between governmental entities and private sector firms, aimed at delivering public services or infrastructure projects. This literature review examines the evolving landscape of PPJVs, focusing on their definitions, theoretical frameworks, advantages, challenges, and case studies.

PPJVs can be defined as contractual agreements where both public and private partners share risks, resources, and responsibilities in pursuit of mutual goals. According to Akintoye et al. (2003), these ventures often leverage the strengths of both sectors: public entities typically provide regulatory oversight and social objectives, while private partners bring efficiency, innovation, and capital investment.

Several theoretical frameworks have been proposed to understand the dynamics of PPJVs. The Transaction Cost Economics (TCE) theory posits that firms engage in joint ventures to minimize transaction costs associated with complex operations and resource sharing (Williamson, 1985). Additionally, the Resource-Based View (RBV) suggests that organizations form PPJVs to combine unique resources and capabilities that enhance competitive advantage (Barney, 1991).

The advantages of PPJVs are well-documented in the literature. One significant benefit is improved efficiency and innovation. Studies indicate that the involvement of private firms can expedite project delivery through better management practices and technological advancements (Hodge & Greve, 2007). Furthermore, PPJVs can enhance financial leverage, allowing public entities to undertake larger projects without overextending their budgets (Kwak et al., 2009).

Another advantage is risk-sharing. By distributing risks between the public and private sectors, PPJVs can mitigate financial exposure, making it easier to undertake complex projects (Sullivan & Morrow, 2014). Additionally, PPJVs can lead to better quality service delivery, as private firms are incentivized to meet performance targets to maximize profits (Graham & Fields, 2008).

Despite the potential benefits, PPJVs also face numerous challenges. One primary concern is the alignment of objectives between public and private partners. Misaligned goals can lead to conflicts, jeopardizing project outcomes (Kumar & Gupta, 2017). Moreover, the complexity of managing joint ventures can lead to bureaucratic inefficiencies, particularly when regulatory frameworks are unclear or overly restrictive (Roehrich et al., 2014).

Another challenge is public perception and trust. Skepticism regarding private sector motives can hinder public support for PPJVs, particularly if past ventures have resulted in negative outcomes (Wettenhall, 2003). Transparency in decision-making and accountability mechanisms are essential to mitigate these concerns (Türetken & Gronow, 2020).

Several case studies illustrate the dynamics of PPJVs in practice. For instance, the London Underground PPP project aimed to modernize the transportation infrastructure but faced significant challenges, including mismanagement and public dissatisfaction (Baker et al., 2014). Conversely, the successful implementation of the Denver Eagle P3 project showcased how effective collaboration can lead to improved public transportation services and infrastructure (Colorado Department of Transportation, 2018), Public-Private Joint Ventures present both opportunities and challenges in delivering public infrastructure and services. While they can lead to enhanced efficiency, innovation, and risk-sharing, misaligned objectives and public skepticism pose significant hurdles, there is necessary to identify best practices and frameworks that can optimize the effectiveness of PPJVs, ensuring that they meet public needs while fostering private sector participation.

2.5 Gaps in the literature

In the study while existing studies focus on time and cost savings during the design and construction phases, there is limited research on the long-term operational performance and sustainability of DB and DBO projects. How do these models perform over the lifecycle of infrastructure or facilities, particularly in terms of maintenance, adaptability to future needs, and operational efficiency?

Studies emphasize collaboration during the design and construction phases, but less attention is given to how stakeholders are engaged during the operation phase in DBO contracts. How does the continuity of collaboration between designers, contractors, and operators affect project performance, particularly after project handover, while risk management is a key aspect of DB projects, there is a gap in understanding how risk is allocated and managed throughout the full scope of DBO contracts? How does transferring operational responsibilities impact the distribution of risks between public and private entities?

Much of the research focuses on infrastructure projects like highways and bridges. There is limited exploration of DB and DBO approaches in other sectors, such as water, energy, and healthcare. How do different sectors influence the effectiveness of the DBO approach in terms of project delivery, stakeholder needs, and operational efficiency and also although there is some research on the role of technology like Building Information Modeling (BIM) in facilitating collaboration, more is needed on how emerging technologies (e.g., IoT, AI) influence both the construction and operational phases in DBO contracts. How can these technologies be leveraged to enhance both short-term project delivery and long-term operational performance?

There are comparisons between DB and traditional delivery methods, such as design-bid-build (DBB), but limited comparative studies between DBO and other public-private partnership models (e.g., Build-Operate-Transfer, Build-Lease-Transfer). How does DBO compare in terms of efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and risk-sharing over the long term?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the methodology that will be adopted during the study. It describes and discusses; the research design, sample size and selection, the data collection methods used and their corresponding data collection instruments, data management and analysis procedure as well as steps that was taken to ensure validity and reliability during the study and measurement of variables.

3.2 Research Design

The study will adopt a cross sectional design. Explanatory research helps a researcher to analyze patterns, formulating hypotheses that can guide future endeavors. According to Amin, (2005) If a researcher is seeking a more complete understanding of a relationship between variables, explanatory research is a great place to start. Since the study seeks to examine the relationship between variables, a simple bivariate correlation design will be adopted to determine the relationship between the study variables. The quantitative approach will be adopted because the study intends to an analyze the factors that determine influence of public private partnership on logistics efficiency among mda’s in uganda a case study of UNRA. Such an endeavor can best be achieved when a quantitative approach is used because it allows for collecting numeric data on observable individual behavior of samples, then subjecting these data to statistical analysis (Amin, 2005).  A qualitative approach also adopted to enable the researcher capture data that may be left out by the quantitative approach. This aimed at capturing more in-depth information on the topic under investigation.

3.3 Study Population

Sekaran (2018) defines a population as the entire group of people, events or things that a researcher wishes to investigate. This is the total population that was used in the study, this specific population has been arrived at due to their experience and knowledge on the subject matter on Influence of public private partnership on logistics efficiency among MDA’S in Uganda a case study of UNRA

Population of respondents

Category	Population
Engineers	5
Architects	2
directors	10
procurement officer	3
Employees	40
Total	60

3.4 Sampling Techniques and Procedure and Study Sample

3.4.1 Study sample

Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), argue that it is impossible to study the whole targeted population \and therefore the researcher shall take a sample of the population. A sample is a subset of the population that comprises members selected from the population. Using Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) table for sample size determination approach, a sample size of   52 employees will be selected from the total population of 60 of respondents.

 3.4.1 Sampling Techniques and Procedure

A number of sampling techniques was used to select respondents to the study namely; simple random and purposive sampling techniques. Simple random sampling will be used because it ensures generalizability of findings and minimizes bias (Sekaran, 2003).  Purposive sampling technique will be used to select the UNRA director. These key informants will be purposively sampled because they are believed to have specialized knowledge about the topic under investigation by virtue of the offices that they hold.

3.5 Data collection Methods

The section presents data collection methods which include survey method, interview and documentary review. The following data collections methods have been chosen because of their numerous advantages.

 

 

3.5.1 Survey Method

The study will use the questionnaire method to collect data. The questionnaire will be used because it allows for the collection of data from a big group of respondents in a short period as suggested by Mugenda and Mugenda (1999: 107). The questionnaire will be used because it allows busy respondents fill it at their convenient time. It also allows respondents express their views and opinions without fear of being victimized (Oso & Onen, 2008:18).

3.5.2 Interview Method

The study employed interview method. Interviews in this study will help the researcher obtain more information on the topic under investigation. Interviews will be used because they fetch a variety of ideas needed for the study and gives a deeper understanding of the topic. This method also used because it offers the researcher an opportunity to adapt questions, clarify the questions by using the appropriate language, clear doubts and establish rapport and probe for more information (Sekaran, 2003:253).

3.5.3 Document Review Method

The researcher will review documents in order to obtain recorded information that is related to the issue under investigation. This method will be used because it enables the researcher access data at his convenient time, obtain data that are thoughtful in that the informants have given attention in obtaining them and enables the researcher obtain data in the language of the respondent (Oso & Onen, 2008: 45).

3.6 Data Collection Instruments

The instruments used in this study will be questionnaire, interview guide and document review checklist.

3.6.1 Self-Administered Questionnaire

The study will employ a questionnaire as a tool of data collection. The questionnaire for staff will have 5 sections.  The questionnaires will be closed ended. Closed ended questions will be developed to help respondents make quick decisions; in addition, closed ended questions will help the researcher to code the information easily for subsequent analysis and narrow down the error gap while analyzing data as observed by Sekaran (2003:231).

3.6.2 Interview Guide

An unstructured interview will be used as a tool for collecting in depth information from the key informants. The guide had a list of topical issues and questions which will explore in the course of conducting the interviews. The guide will be drawn with the questions soliciting for the perception of the key informants regarding the topic under study. The interview guide will be used because it obtains in-depth data which may not be possible to obtain when using self-administered questionnaires (Mugenda & Mugenda, 1999:17; Kakoza, 1999:27).

3.6.3 Documentary Review Checklist

A document review checklist will be used to collect more in-depth data on the topic under investigation. This also enables the researcher to supplement the data that is acquired from the interviews and questionnaires. The researcher will analyze the documents and publications related to the study topic. Documents that are expected to be reviewed include data from UNRA.

3.7 Data quality control

This will involve testing both validity and reliability of data

3.7.1 Validity

Validity is defined as the extent to which results can be accurately interpreted and generalized to other populations (Oso & Onen, 2008). While Borg & Gall, 1989 as cited in Onyinkwa, (2013) validity is defined as the degree to which results obtained by the research instrument correctly represented to the phenomenon understudy and Mugenda & Mugenda, (1999) as the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences which are based on the research results.

Amin, (2005) recommended minimum CVI of 0.7 to be used. Validity was tested using content validity index which involves judges scoring the relevancy of the questions in the instruments in relation to the study variables.

The formula for Content Validity Index is;

CVI =

Where CVI = content validity

n= number of items indicated relevant.

N = total no. of items in the instrument

In this study, validity Will be achieved by establishing content validity. The researcher will achieve content validity by using the experts to assess the validity of the research instrument. The experts especially research supervisors and consultants from the institution will be given data collection tools to assess whether the items in the instruments are valid in relation to research topic, objectives, and questions. From the instruments they will declare some items valid and others invalid. Those declared invalid were dropped, others adjusted, while the valid ones will be maintained.  Then content validity index (CVI) will be computed by dividing the number of items declared valid by total number of items/questions in the data collection instrument.

3.7.2 Reliability

According to Mugenda and Mugenda, (2003) reliability is the measure of the extent to which research instruments are able to provide the same results upon being tested repeatedly.

Crobach’s coefficient alpha (a) as recommended by Amin, (2005, P.302) will be used to test the reliability of the research instrument. The instrument is deemed reliable if reliable of 0.7 and above is obtained and therefore, it will be adopted for use in the data collection.

Formula for reliability is

=      ()

Where  = alpha reliability co efficiency.

K=Number of items included in the questionnaire

= sum of variance of individual items

= variance of all items in the instrument.

3.8 Data Collection Procedure

The researcher will obtain a letter of introduction from the institution and will be presented to the authorities in UNRA and after that he will obtain a list of all the staff in the organization. The researcher randomly selected respondents to participate in the study, a self-administered questionnaire will be used to collect information from the above-mentioned respondents. The researcher also purposively selected top officials of UNRA who will be interviewed.

3.9 Data Analysis

3.9.1 Analysis of quantitative Data

Descriptive statistics namely frequency counts, percentages Will be used to analyze the respondents’ demographic characteristics and the mean and standard deviation will be used to analyze the respondents’ opinions on the topic under investigation.

Data analyzed and correlated using Pearson Product-Moment correlation coefficient to establish the relationship between the variables in the study. Regression analysis will be used in determining the strength of the relationship between the variables, this is possible by determining the value of R-squared value the higher the R-squared value the stronger the relationship. For this study, the dimensions of independent variable. The statistical package which will be used for analysis of data in this study is the SPSS version 16.0. Different statistical techniques will be used namely: correlation and regression analysis. The upper level of statistical significance for hypothesis testing will be at 5%. All statistical test results will be computed at 2-tailed level of significance.

3.9.2 Analysis of qualitative data

Qualitative data will be analyzed using content analysis. Responses from key informants were grouped into recurrent issues. The recurrent issues which emerged in relation to each guiding questions were presented in the results, with selected direct quotations from participants offered as illustrations.

 

 

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