FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO POVERTY AMONG PWDS IN NADUNGET SUB-COUNTY, MOROTO DISTRICT
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the background to the study, statement of the problem, purpose and specific objectives of the study, research questions, scope and significance of the study, and anticipated limitations.
1.1 Background to the study
According to Mitra (2006), disability is defined differently depending on the paradigm that is being considered. The medical model of disability is strongly normative, based on the individual and his or her medical condition and people are considered to be disabled on the basis of being unable or less able to function as a “normal” person.
The world Development Report (World Bank 1990) defined poverty as the “inability to attain a minimal standard of living” measured by household incomes and expenditures. Ownership or access to physical facilities in the environment (or rather lack of them) is often used as a test of urban poverty, particularly when data on income is unavailable.
Disabled people across the globe are highly represented among the poor. It is estimated that about two thirds of disabled people in the United States of America (USA), United Kingdom(UK) and Canada live below the poverty line (OPCS2, 1989). In many developing countries, however, the overwhelming majority of the disabled population lives in poverty (Coleridge, 1993). Disabled women and children are highly represented among the poor and they are often subjected to social, cultural and economic disadvantages which limit their access, for example, to health care, education, vocational training and employment (DAA/UNESCO, 1995).
Poverty and disability in Uganda are inextricably linked. Despite impressive economic gains made by the country in the last 10 – 15 years, current evidence suggests that at least 2.4 million disabled people remain poor. Disability feeds on poverty, and poverty on disability. Because of poverty many people become disabled. Such people have very limited access to health care and facilities (including immunisation); they have very rudimentary feeding and nutrition; they are exposed to a number of disabling conditions, etc. As a consequence chronically poor people are more likely to become disabled. On the other hand, many disabled people lack education and skills training (Lang, 2000). Hence they cannot easily access employment. The physically demanding nature of unskilled labour (a hallmark of most African economies) also makes it difficult for disabled people to be involved in labour intensive activities. This situation is made worse by outright social exclusion of disabled people that constrains disabled people’s participation in the job market.
Disability statistics: The most recent Census put Uganda’s total population at 24.6million. Using the WHO-recommended ten percent (10%) of this figure to estimate the number of disabled people one arrives at a crude figure of 2.4 million disabled persons in the country. But estimates of people with specific disabilities suggest even larger numbers. The Ugandan Ministry of Health and Action on Disability andDevelopment (ADD3), for example, estimate that there are anywhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000 mentally ill adults in Uganda (Ministry of Health/ADD, 1999). Baingana’s (Ministry of Health) estimate of persons with “mental disability” is 766,898 of whom 183,389 are estimated to be with “severe mental retardation” (Baingana, 1996).
On the other hand the Education Assessment Resources Programme (EARS) of the Ministry of Education estimates the prevalence of learning difficulties at 16.9% of all disabilities. Similarly, epilepsy is estimated at 2% of the population, Schizophrenia at 1%, and manic depression at 3%. Meanwhile “common mental disorders” account for 20-30% of all out patient attendances. When these figures are compared with statistics on deafness, blindness and other disabilities, a picture begins to emerge. Bearing all these factors and evidence in mind, an estimate of at least three million Ugandans, or just over 10 percent of the current population would not be an overestimate by any account. If approximately 80 percent of this population lives in conditions of long-term poverty, as is being suggested in this study, then up to a staggering 2.4 million disabled people may be classified as chronically poor disabled persons – a considerable number by any account.
In Nadunget Sub county, Moroto District, the rehabilitation of PWDs has been ragging behind partly due to the general belief that they are the most difficult people to work with as compared to their counterparts. Therefore, the study seeks to explore the factors that contribute to poverty among PWDs.
1.2 Problem statement
The government of Uganda in partnership with many NGOS put in place several measures to reduce poverty among its population (PEAP, 2000). This has been done through the implementation of all programmes embedded in Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP). PEAP is Uganda’s national planning that guide’s public action to promote economic growth and reduce absolute poverty. It consists of many programmes such as Prosperity For All (PFA) Universal Primary Education (UPE) and Plan for Modernization Agriculture (PMA) Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) and extension of village bank saving credit co-operations (SACCOs) in poor rural areas.According to the World Bank (2011), “Persons with disabilities on average as a group experience worse socioeconomic outcomes than persons without disabilities, such as less education, worse health outcomes, less employment, and higher poverty rates.
The government of Uganda in partnership with many NGOS has put forward several strategies to try and eliminate poverty among PWDs through for example engaging them in community development programs, Poverty Eradication Action, Plan ensuring their maximum participation in those programmes among others. Despite governments’ efforts to eradicate poverty through programmes like NAADS, FAL, PMA, PFA among others, many PWDs in Uganda continue to live in absolute poverty. Therefore, it is from this background that the researcher seeks to examine the factors contributing to poverty among PWDs.
1.3 Purpose of the study
To explore the factors that contribute to poverty among PWDs in Nadunget Sub-County, Moroto District.
1.4 Specific objectives
- To establish factors for the increased poverty among PWDs in Nadunget Sub-County, Moroto District.
- To identify the challenges faced by implementers of the existing poverty reduction strategy for PWDs in Nadunget Sub-County, Moroto District.
- To suggest possible strategies to alleviate poverty among PWDs.
1.5 Research questions
- What factors contribute to the increased poverty among PWDs in Nadunget Sub-County, Moroto District?
- What are some of the challenges faced by implementers of the existing poverty reduction strategy for PWDs in Nadunget Sub-County, Moroto District?
- What are the possible strategies to alleviate poverty among PWDs in Nadunget Sub-County, Moroto District?
1.6 Scope of the study
The study will be aimed at exploring the factors contributing to poverty among PWDs, specifically finding out the factors for the increased poverty among PWDs, challenges faced by implementers of the existing poverty reduction strategy and suggesting possible strategies to alleviate poverty. The study will be carried out in Nadunget Sub-County, Moroto District for a period of four months.
1.7 Justification for the study
This research on poor disabled is borne out of three key considerations.First, anecdotal information suggests that disabled people are “borne into poverty” and that both poverty and disability are mutually reinforcing. Secondly, a number of well-intentioned development programmes in Uganda today exclude most disabled people either due to design faults or inappropriate inherent assumptions. Thirdly, not much is known about the key factors that limit the participation of disabled people in poverty reduction initiatives (Baingana, 1996).
1.8 Significance of the study
The study will help policy makers to implement policies to involve disabled people in local governance for instance through their representation at various local council levels.
To future researchers, the findings will add to the existing information about factors that contribute to poverty among disabilities.
To the local communities in Nadunget Sub County, the findings will help them to support PWDs in identifying for example income generating activities can help alleviate poverty among PWDs.
The findings of the study may help the government to come up with appropriate strategies to eradicate poverty among PWDs.
The findings may help to ascertain the responsiveness of key policy instruments in Uganda to disabled people’s needs, and identify gaps in key poverty reduction policies and programmes with respect to disability.
It will help to raise awareness among community development workers and other service providers to enable them create opportunities for PWDS to access and engage in income generating activities.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter reviews related studies on poverty and disability for a better understanding of the research topic.
2.1 Key study concepts
2.1.1 Poverty
Poverty is a major issue confronting billions of people in the world. In 2008, The World Bank [1] estimated 1.29 billion people were living in absolute poverty, i.e., they live on less than $1.25 a day. About 22% of this population lives in developing countries, in addition to 43% who live on less than $2 a day. The World Bank admits that extreme poverty is still a global challenge experienced in all parts of the world.
There are different approaches to defining poverty. Absolute poverty defines poverty in terms of the lack of basic necessities of life, while relative poverty is based on the notion that some people are unable to live, financially or socially, the minimum standard in accordance with customs and values of a given society. Other definitions of poverty embrace its multifaceted dimensions: material, non-material, and the myriad of socio-cultural and political aspects of the phenomenon that keep people vulnerable, powerless, isolated and excluded from participating in the socio-economic and political development.
The United Nations defines poverty as the denial of opportunities and the violation of human dignity. Its human development index is a measure of poverty based on indicators such as literacy, education, health care and other basic necessities.
2.1.2 Disability in Uganda
It is estimated that persons with disability are about 10.4 per cent (approximately 2.6 million people) of Uganda’s population (NUDIPU 2003); although exact statistics will be available in the final Uganda’s 2002 Population Census Report (Uganda Bureau of Statistics 2002). However, a report on chronic poverty and disability (Development Research and Training, Uganda, 2003) puts this figure at approximately 2.4 million people with disability. In actual sense, lack of proper statistical information about poverty situations of people with disabilities from key government sources is itself a symptom of their marginalisation.
The latest Poverty Status Report, 2002) estimates overall poverty level in Uganda at 35 per cent (approximately 8.6 million people) of the total population (Uganda Bureau of Statistics 2002). The DRT study (DRT 2003) further suggested that approximately 80 per cent of people with disabilities live in conditions of long-term poverty. If this figure is taken as an indicator of poverty level among the PWDs, then according to the current population estimate, there are 2.1 million poor people with disability. This estimation therefore shows that among the poor, 24 per cent (2.1 of 8.6 million) have disabilities. In simple terms, one in four poor people in Uganda has a disability.
The above number of poor PWDs as a total of people who live in abject poverty is considerably significant for government to ignore the key poverty concerns of PWDs and their contribution to the general development process in the country. It is therefore very important for government to take into consideration strategies to reduce poverty among PWDs, not solely with a social protection approach but by ‘unlocking their income potential’ under the PEAP and public expenditure processes. For example, in many cases, PWDs get less or no education and skills due to social exclusion and lack of facilities, thus limiting their ability to get a better source of livelihood in terms of good employment or ability to be economically active.
Furthermore, disability is not only an individual destiny, but also the outcome of situations and decisions for which the disabled person is no more responsible than any other citizen, such as bad sanitary and health conditions or war. But the disabled person carries the consequences of collective situations and decisions. The government, therefore, has a responsibility through key interventions to eliminate the exclusions that turn impairment into a disability.
2.1.3 Understanding disability and its link to poverty in Uganda
According to The United Nations Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities, the concept of ‘disability’ in relation to policy intervention is defined to an acceptable level as “the functional limitations occurring to any population in different forms of physical, intellectual or sensory impairment, medical conditions or mental illness”. Such impairments, conditions or illness may be permanent or transitory in nature. The same rules define the term ‘handicap’ to mean the loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the life of the community on an equal level with others. Therefore, for the sake of simplicity, this paper refers to disability as defined within the above concept, including situations of being handicap in order to guide the relevant policy interventions and for political action.
Most studies have revealed that the relationship between poverty and disability is very strong. Poor people are more vulnerable to risky situations such as occupational hazards, less or no access to good health facilities and poor feeding and nutrition, which expose them to disabling conditions. Disability is a cause and consequence of poverty. It is stuck in a vicious circle that leads from the appearance of a disability to poverty, which increases the incidence of disability. This in turn increases poverty.
The Government of Uganda therefore has the obligation to break this circle, by giving disability issues a prominent position in the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP – a national framework for poverty eradication).
The current PEAP treats issues about disabilities under the general categories of “vulnerable groups”, “marginalised groups of society”, or as “disadvantaged groups”. However, this kind of grouping has in most cases failed to give explicit strategies and relevant policy interventions for the intended target group(s). Determinants or dimensions of poverty are quite wide, as identified in the Uganda Participatory Poverty Assessment Project (UPPAP), even within the “vulnerable or marginalized groups”, and therefore it is essential for specific groups and sub-groups to have explicit strategies with concrete specificity to be addressed by PEAP.
Poverty leads to disability resulting in diseases and impairments. Equally true,disability leads to poverty in the sense that those with impairments will engenderextra cost of living related to their specific needs. Therefore, it is argued thatpoverty alleviation is a key solution in preventing disability directly and indirectly,especially in countries with low resources such as in developing world where nowelfare system exists to cater for the needs of disadvantaged groups includingthose with impairments such as in the west. Breaking the chain of economicdependency of the poor requires the eradication of poverty to help overcome theproblems of social and economic deprivation. In this sense, poverty eradication canbe regarded as a prerequisite to development.
2.2 Factors that contribute to poverty among PWDs
According to the World Bank, “Persons with disabilities on average as a group experience worse socioeconomic outcomes than persons without disabilities, such as less education, worse health outcomes, less employment, and higher poverty rates.” Researchers have demonstrated that these reduced outcomes may be attributed to a myriad of institutional barriers and other factors. Furthermore, the prevalence of disabilities in impoverished populations has been predicted to follow a cyclical pattern by which those who live in poverty are more likely to acquire a disability and those who have a disability are more likely to become impoverished.
Experts assert that this cycle is perpetuated mainly by the lack of agency afforded to those living in poverty. The few options available to the poor often necessitate that these individuals put themselves in harms way, consequently resulting in an increase in the acquisition of preventable impairments. Living in poverty is also shown to decrease an individual’s access to preventative health services, which results in an increase in the acquisition of potentially preventable disabilities.
In a study by Oxfam, the organization found that well over half of the instances of childhood blindness and hearing impairment in Africa and Asia were considered preventable or treatable. Another estimate released by Oxfam provides further evidence of this vicious circle, finding that 100 million people living in poverty suffer from impairments acquired due to malnutrition and lack of proper sanitation.
Discrimination
Prejudice held against individuals with disabilities, otherwise termed ableism, is shown to be a significant detriment to the successful outcomes of persons in this population. According to one study following the lives of children with disabilities in South Africa, the children in the sample described “discrimination from other children and adults in the community as their most significant daily problem.”
Additional forms of discrimination may lead disability to be more salient in already marginalized populations. Women and individuals belonging to certain ethnic groups who have disabilities have been found to more greatly suffer from discrimination and endure negative outcomes. Some researchers attribute this to what they believe is a “double rejection” of girls and women who are disabled on the basis of their sex in tandem with their special needs.
The stereotypes that accompany both of these attributes lead females with disabilities to be seen as particularly dependent upon others and serve to amplify the misconception of this population as burdensome.
In a study done by Oxfam, the societal consequences of having a disability while belonging to an already marginalized population were highlighted, stating, “A disabled women suffers a multiple handicap. Her chances of marriage are very slight, and she is most likely to be condemned to a twilight existence as a non-productive adjunct to the household of her birth… it is small wonder that many disabled female babies do not survive.” Additionally, women with disabilities are particularly susceptible to abuse.
A 2004 UN survey in Orissa, India, found that every women with disabilities in their sample had experienced some form of physical abuse. This double discrimination is also shown to be prevalent in more industrialized nations. In the United States, for example, 72 percent of women with disabilities live below the poverty line. The intensified discrimination individuals with disabilities may face due to their sex is especially important to consider when taking into account that, according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, women report higher incidences of disability than men.
Furthermore, the connection between disability and poverty holds particular significance for the world’s women, with females accounting for roughly 70 percent of all individuals living in poverty.
Health cares
Another reason individuals living with disabilities are often impoverished is the high medical costs associated with their needs. One study, conducted in villages in South India, demonstrated that the annual cost of treatment and equipment needed for individuals with disabilities in the area ranged from three days of income to upwards of two years’ worth, with the average amount spent on essential services totaling three months worth of income. This figure does not take into account the unpaid work of caregivers who must provide assistance after these procedures and the opportunity costs leading to a loss of income during injury, surgery, and rehabilitation.
Studies reported by medical anthropologists Benedicte Ingstad and Susan Reynolds Whyte have also shown that access to medical care is significantly impaired when one lacks mobility. They report that in addition to the direct medical costs associated with special needs, the burden of transportation falls most heavily on those with disabilities. This is especially true for the rural poor whose distance from urban environments necessitates extensive movement in order to obtain health services. Due to these barriers, both economic and physical, it is estimated that only 2 percent of individuals with disabilities have access to adequate rehabilitation services.
The inaccessibility of health care for those living in poverty has a substantial impact on the rate of disability within this population. Individuals living in poverty face higher health risks and are often unable to obtain proper treatment, leading them to be significantly more likely to acquire a disability within their lifetime.
Financial barriers are not the only obstacles those living in poverty are confronted with. Research shows that matters of geographic inaccessibility, availability, and cultural limitations all provide substantial impediments to the acquisition of proper care for the populations of developing countries.
Sex-specific ailments are particularly harmful for women living in poverty. The World Health Organization estimates that each year 20 million women acquire disabilities due to complications during pregnancy and childbirth that could be significantly mitigated with proper pre-natal, childbirth, and post-natal medical care.
Other barriers to care are present in the lack of treatments developed to target diseases of poverty. Experts assert that the diseases most commonly affecting those in poverty attract the least research funding. This discrepancy, known as the 10/90 gap, reveals that only 10 percent of global health research focuses on conditions that account for 90 percent of the global disease burden. Without a redistribution in research capital, it is likely that many of the diseases known to cause death and disability in impoverished populations will persist.
Institutional barriers
Researchers assert that institutional barriers play a substantial role in the incidence of poverty in those with disabilities.
Physical environment may be a large determinant in one’s ability to access ladders of success or even basic sustenance. Professor of urban planning Rob Imrie concluded that most spaces contain surmountable physical barriers that unintentionally create an “apartheid by design,” whereby individuals with disabilities are excluded from areas because of the inaccessible layout of these spaces. This “apartheid” has been seen by some, such as the United Kingdom Disabled Persons Council, as especially concerning with regard to public transportation, education and health facilities, and perhaps most relevantly places of employment.
Physical barriers are also commonly found in the home, with those in poverty more likely to occupy tighter spaces inaccessible to wheelchairs. Beyond physical accessibility, other potential excluding agents include a lack of Braille, sign language and shortage of audio tape availability for those who are blind and deaf.
Education
The roots of unemployment are speculated to begin with discrimination at an early age. UNESCO reports that 98 percent of children with disabilities in developing countries are denied access to formal education.According to the World Bank, at least 40 million children with disabilities do not receive an education thus barring them from obtaining knowledge essential to gainful employment and forcing them to grow up to be financially dependent upon others. This is also reflected in a finding obtained by the World Development Report that 77 percent of persons with disabilities are illiterate.
This statistic is even more jarring for women with disabilities, with the United Nations Development Program reporting that the global literacy rate for this population is a mere 1 percent. This may be attributed to the fact that, according to the World Health Organization, boys with disabilities are significantly more likely to receive an education than similarly disabled girls.
Beyond simply the skills obtained, experts such as former World Bank advisor Judith Heumann speculate that the societal value of education and the inability of schools to accommodate special needs children substantially contributes to the discrimination of these individuals. It is important to note that the deprivation of education to individuals with special needs may not be solely an issue of discrimination, but an issue of resources. Children with disabilities often require specialized educational resources and teaching practices largely unavailable in developing countries.
Employment
Some sociologists have found a number of barriers to employment for individuals with disabilities. These may be seen in employer discrimination, architectural barriers within the workplace, pervasive negative attitudes regarding skill, and the adverse reactions of customers.According to sociologist Edward Hall, “More disabled people are unemployed, in lower status occupations, on low earnings, or out of the labour market altogether, than non-disabled people.”
The International Labor Organization estimates that roughly 386 million of the world’s working age population have some form of disability, however, up to eighty percent of these employable individuals with disabilities are unable to find work. Statistics show that individuals with disabilities in both industrialized and developing countries are generally unable to obtain formal work.
In India, only 100,000 of the country’s 70 million individuals with disabilities are employed. In the United States, 14.3 of a projected 48.9 million people with disabilities were employed, with two-thirds of those unemployed reporting that they were unable to find work. Similarly in Belgium, only 30 percent of persons with disabilities were able to find gainful employment. In the United Kingdom, 45 percent of adults with disabilities were found to live below the poverty line. Reliable data on the rate of unemployment for persons with disabilities has yet to be determined in most developing countries.
Sociologists Colin Barnes and Geof Mercer demonstrated that this exclusion of persons with disabilities from the paid labor market is a primary reason why the majority of this population experiences far greater levels of poverty and are more reliant on the financial support of others. In addition to the economic gains associated with employment, researchers have shown that participation in the formal economic sector reduces discrimination of persons with disabilities.
One anthropologist who chronicled the lives of persons with disabilities in Botswana noted that individuals who were able to find formal employment “will usually obtain a position in society equal to that of non-disabled citizens.” Because the formal workplace is such a social space, the exclusion of individuals with disabilities from this realm is seen by some sociologists to be a significant impediment to social inclusion and equality.
Equity in employment has been strategized by some, such as sociologists Esther Wilder and William Walters, to depend on heightened awareness of current barriers, wider use of assistive technologies that can make workplaces and tasks more accessible, more accommodating job development, and most importantly deconstructing discrimination.
Creating inclusive employment that better facilitates the participation of individuals with disabilities is demonstrated to have a significantly positive impact on not only the lives of these individuals, but also the economies of nations who implement such measures. The International Labour Organization estimates that the current exclusion of employable individuals with special needs is costing countries possible gains of 1 to 7 percent of their GDP.
2.3 The challenges faced by implementers of poverty existing poverty reduction strategies for PWDs.
According to Mugisha (1993) forwarded the following as the cases of poverty, lack of commitment to work, general weak infrastructure (roads, schools, hospitals) producing low value of goods (agriculture products), the system of land inheritance and fragmentation, lack of credit facilities, lack of market for finished goods, AIDS epidemics in recent times and extended families in the view Mugisha above therefore people are not committed to work and move out of poverty, they produce goods (agricultural products) of poor quality which lack market and ever people lack of enough land.
According Uganda participatory poverty assessment report (2000) asserted that 67% of the community identified poor health and disease as major causes and consequences of poverty where the situation puts work at stand still and the rural poor people.
Engleman (1997) also stressed that rapid population growth is commonly to be “a root cause” of poverty population growth has influenced factors that contributed to poverty such as the growth inability of government to provide adequate situation health care services and education pressure relating to population growth contribute to lack of adequate housing and under mine social services and transportation networks on which livelihoods.
According to 2007 mid term report or Uganda’s performance on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) shows that low agriculture production and a fast growing in the population accuse persistent poverty. The report also shows that the dominance of women in the agriculture sector with in lowest returns to labour, coupled with low female literacy makes it difficult for them to complete on the highly competitive job market, thus keeping them perpetually in poverty. And the report reveals that 90% of people employed in the agriculture sector are women.
According to Nuwagaba (2009) from Makerere University who has done wide consultancy on poverty erudition in Africa, realized that unevenly distribution of economic growth leads to persistent poverty. He stressed that the economic growth country is experiencing is not translating into better life for the most of its citizens. He further explained that the economic which should be benefiting the whole country is being enjoyed by few people professor Nuwagaba said there is a still huge gap between poverty eradication and peoples every day living conditions.
2.4 Strategies to alleviate poverty among PWDs
Poverty eradication is a central objective of the GoU and the Poverty Eradication Action Plan
(PEAP) is the Government’s guiding framework to achieve this. The PEAP was developedfrom 1995-97 with inputs from a variety of actors at the national level, such as employers’and workers’ organisations, NGOs and academics.
A specific, more precise estimate on additional cost of living for PWDs should be workedout. International bodies, Governments at different levels, independent bodies,professionals and NGOs should provide technical and financial support for such research.These studies should also focus on working out separately the poverty line for personswith different disabilities, from different regions and for urban and rural areas.
Bringing PWDs on par with the rest of the population, schemes, programmes andprojects should be initiated and the existing ones strengthened to provide the differentfacilities highlighted above, so as to promote equal opportunities to PWDS. Theendeavour should be to provide facilities like non-handicapping environment, suitablymodified gadgets and tools, requisite assistive devices ‘to reduce’ the dependence onfamily and community members for carrying on activities of daily living.
There is little provision made for disabled people in the majority world, whichassist them to be economically active. Physical impairment aside, many barriersto open employment continue to exist, including inaccessible transportation andbuildings, non-adapted tools, and employers’ prejudice and fears (UNESCO/DAA,1995). Evidence from Jordan and Afghanistan suggests income generatingstrategies for self-employment as useful means of integrating disabled peopleinto the economy when other options of employment become difficult for them toget and thus fighting poverty.
The goal of the income generation strategy is to enable disabled men andwomen to become economically self-reliant by supporting them to find selfemployment;either in the open labour market or by starting their own businessesand assist them for direct job placement in government as well as in the privatesector.
The income generation strategy consists of employment or direct job placement,vocational rehabilitation and small business development.
To break the vicious circle of poverty and disability, access facilities need to be providedthroughout the nation at the earliest. An attempt may be made to provide, in phases, auniversal design, for both buildings and the transport sector.
Pension and financial support to PWDs should be fixed, keeping in view the additionalcosts that they have to incur, compared to the rest of the population.
The wages/remuneration to PWDs may be worked out in terms of a realistic minimumcost of living rather than pegging it on the basis of the poverty line for the rest of thepopulation.
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the research design, area of the study, study population, sample size, sample techniques, the data collection instruments, the procedures of data collection, ethical considerations, and data analysis.
3.1 Research Design
A research design refers to the overall strategy that one choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way; thereby, ensuring that the researcher that it will effectively address the research problem. It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data (Mugenda, 1999). According to Baron (2011), qualitative research design helps to capture qualitative data, based on qualitative aspects that cannot be quantified. It aids in discovering the motives and desires or what people think and how they feel about a given subject or situation. A cross sectional survey research design, combined with qualitative methods will be used for this study. This method involves an unstructured approach to inquiry and allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process. It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it. Its main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude like description of an observed situation, or opinions(Mubazi, 2008).
3.2 Area of study
The study will be carried out in Nadunget Sub-County, Moroto District-northern part of Uganda. The selection of the area of study is based on the poverty levels on people in the sub county.
3.3 Population of the Study
According to Baron, (2011), this constitutes people-individuals, organizations, groups, communities or other units that provide information or to collect information about for the study. This will include PWDs, Parents of PWDs, social workers, CBR workers and community officers in Moroto district.
3.4 The Sample
The sample refers to subset of people, items or events selected from the universe or population for study purposes, (Baron, 2011). The study will use a total of 11 respondents to provide a manageable volume of data and allow the researcher to make accurate estimates of thoughts and behavior of a larger population. The samples will include 3 PWDs, 3 Parents of PWDs, 1 local leader, 3 CBR workers and 1 CDO.
Table 3.1. Showing Sample of the study
| Respondent | No. of respondents |
| PWDs | 03 |
| Parents of PWDs | 03 |
| Local leaders | 1 |
| CBR workers | 3 |
| CDO | 1 |
| Total | 11 |
PWDs will be selected because they know the challenges they face in as PWDs, Parents will be chosen because they are the immediate people to PWDs and are to have valuable information to the research study. Local leaders, CBR workers and CDOwill be chosen because they are assumed to have broader knowledge of the study area and also theyare the implementer of government programs hence valuable information for the study is needed from them.
3.5 Sampling Procedures
According to Baron (2011), this is a definite plan determined before data collection for obtaining a sample from a given population. It involves three decisions: who to be sampled, how many people to sample, and how to obtain the sample.
Purposive sampling technique will be used to select key informants because they are deemed to be knowledgeable about the phenomenon under investigation.
3.6 Data Collection Methods
The interview method is a conversation where questions are asked and answers are given (Robson, 1993). Cohon and Manioh (1989) further qualify interview to be a conservation initiated by the interviewer for specific purpose of obtaining research relevant information and focuses on content specified by research objectives of specific description. A semi-structured interview guide will be used for the in-depth interviews with people with disabilities and Parents, local leaders, CBR and community workers. The semi-structured interview guide will be developed based on the objectives. They will be designed in English language. It will be used because it promotes greater depth of response which is not possible through other means and it allows the researcher to get information concerning feelings, attitudes in relation to research questions. However, some interviewees may not respond freely, frankly and accurately.
Procedures of Data Collection
As far as collection of data for this study is concerned, the researcher following the following;
The researcher will ensure the approval of the research proposal and instruments especially the interview guide to test their effectiveness in carrying out the study, will get a letter of introduction from the head of department for introducing her to the area of study, will prepare other letters to individual respondents requesting their willingness to participate in the study, will present herself to the area of the study and giving respondents their consent letters, actual data collection on arrival to the area, the researcher will arrange with the local leader and will explain her visit and will carry on with her interviews with each interview lasting between ten to 20 minutes.
Data Processing, Presentation and Analysis
The data will be qualitatively analysed. It will involve transcribing interview data, identifying the major themes arising from the respondents’ answers; assigning codes to these themes; classification of the major responses under the main theme; and integrating the responses into the report in a descriptive and analytical manner.Quantitative data will be analyzed to give percentages, and statistical figures.
Ethical Considerations
The researcher will collect data upon seeking respondents’ consent after revealing the type of information needed and the purpose to avoid potential concealment of vital information.
The researcher also will maintain confidentiality of respondents’ information; and will report the true findings of the study without any bias.
CHAPTER FOUR
ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
This chapter presents findings collected from the 11 respondents identified for the research as regards the factors contributing to poverty among PWDs in Nadunget Sub County in Moroto District. The study intends to achieve the following objectives: (i) to establish factors for the increased poverty among PWDs in Nadunget Sub-County, Moroto District, to identify the challenges faced by implementers of the existing poverty reduction strategy for PWDs in Nadunget Sub-County, Moroto District and to suggest possible strategies to alleviate poverty among PWDs in the area.
4.1 Results
4.1.1 Participants’ characteristics
The respondents were asked about their age, marital status, education levels and source of income and the following results were obtained as represented in the tables below:
Table 4.1. Showing age of respondents.
| Age | Frequency | Percentage |
| 18-37 years | 3 | 27 |
| 38-47 years | 1 | 9 |
| 48 years + | 7 | 64 |
| Marital status | Frequency | Percentage |
| Married | 8 | 73 |
| Single | 3 | 27 |
| Level of education | Frequency | Percentage |
| Primary | 2 | 18 |
| Secondary/vocational | 4 | 46 |
| Tertiary | 5 | 36 |
The majority (64%) of the respondents were predominantly between the ages of 48 and above. A significant percentage (27%) of the respondents were between 18 and 37years. 48 years + had the highest number because these are the most active age group hence they are actively involved in community programmes, therefore they had rich experiences and could also appreciate the importance of the study.
A greater percentage (73.0%) of the interviewed respondents was found to be married, while 27% of the participants were single and they were simply unmarried adults living with their families. It is important to note that these respondents had families therefore most of them had knowledge of the issues contributing to poverty among PWDs.
The table above shows that most of the interviewed respondents (46.0%) were of tertiary level, 36% were of secondary or vocational level therefore, provided information based on the academic knowledge, skills and experience they have gain in management.
4.2 Factors contributing to increased poverty among PWDs
Study respondents were asked to identify the factors that have increased poverty among PWDs and the following results were obtained and are represented below;
The study findings shows that illiteracy was one of the greatest factors that led to poverty (9) among PWDs. This is because poverty brings about other risk factors like lack of knowledge and skills as well as lack of qualifications.
The next highest factors were denial of jobs due to impairments with 8respondents. Most respondents said that PWDs are not given always given regular jobs like normal people. This kind of discrimination and stigma towards them has made them to be jobless and thus, lack of source of income leads to higher levels of poverty.
Further, the study findings showed that another factor that has led to higher prevalent rates of PWDs are low wages due to low productivity, as well as inability to access social services and public utilities, which both took the 6respondents. One of the PWDs said;
Last were lack of market for their products and services with 5respondents. These PWDs complained and emphasized that it seemed to them that the local population was disgusted by their impairments. One of the respondents who runs a small kiosk says; “…people even tell me that they cannot buy my tomatoes, as my disability may infect them as well.”
All in all, it is clear that the community of Nadunget contributes heavily to disabling these PWDs and drives them into poverty. Even these PWDs try to take part in gainful employment; their efforts are suffocated in various ways.
A respondent stated;
PWDs are disempowered by the current economic situation. This essentially means that people suffer from impairments caused by poverty because of the inability of the state to provide a welfare system to its citizens, which includes medical support. Thus, from this point of view, all efforts should be directed and mobilized towards confronting poverty in order to break the chain of economic dependency of PWDs.
He further stated that;
One important action, which should be addressed, is to enhance economic participation and access to work. This will help to meet the basic needs of people with disabilities and place them in a better position to realize long term personal development. The priority should be to organize or re-organize the labour force in such a way that it is accessible to disabled people.
4.3 Challenges faced by implementers of the existing poverty reduction strategy for PWDs
Respondents were asked about the challenges faced by implementers of the existing poverty reduction strategy for PWDs. The following results were obtained and are represented below;
Study findings indicated that most respondents agreed that poverty was so evident among PWDs in the community. They explained that in one way or another, poverty was their major challenge, and it was a result of their impairment and the way society disables them.
One of the PWDs added saying;
There is no way one can leave this place and make money; I was amputated so I don’t see myself engaging in any economic activity….. That has left me poor and as you can see me, I cannot afford anything.
As shown in the findings, 7 respondents said that implementers of the existing poverty reduction strategy for PWDs face a major challenge of the increasing population and limited resources allocated to PWDs programmes; therefore the planning process becomes hard.
Study findings also found out that the education levels of PWDs were low, thus the implementers found it hard to introduce some programmes otherwise few would benefit.
4.4 Analysis on objective three: Possible strategies to alleviate poverty among PWDs.
In order to complete this study respondents were to identify measures to alleviate poverty among PWDs. The following results were obtained and are represented in the table below;
Study findings revealed that respondents said IGA training with 100% of the respondents.
Most of them urged that they lacked skills and special training in Economic activities, and they thought it wise to request that they be trained and equipped with skills so as they can strive out of poverty. They also required special training according to their special needs.
On respondent said;
…I don’t expect to be given the same training as that person with no disability, this training should be based on my impairment, but unfortunately our leaders have failed to come up with such ideas, now we are left to feel so neglected and vulnerable at that.
A respondent said that to assist disabled people to start income generation programme, it is necessary for the government and non-governmental organization to introduce revolving loan and micro credit mechanism such as:
Training disabled people in small business development aspect to be able to plan their income generation activities on proper manner; Establishing bank system for financially supporting disabled people to receive loan for various occupation under certain name such as agriculture purpose, animal husbandry; Introducing and support different culturally appropriate mechanism to business and financially Support students with disability to continue with their education, and after graduation find jobs for them then remember the loan amount gradually.
These policies would take both the National and international levels, they could redeem PWDs out of poverty. A respondent was quoted:
“Income generating strategies for self-employment as useful means of integrating people with disabilities into the economy when other options of employment become difficult for them to get and thus fighting poverty”.
From the table above, the respondents pointed out measures, of which advocacy was mentioned by 6 respondents. One of the PWDs said;
“…we have nobody to stand up for us, somebody just needs to be our voice and make people aware of our needs and rights as PWDs.”
There is little provision made for disabled people in the community, which assist them to be economically active. Physical impairment aside, many barriers to open employment continue to exist, including inaccessible transportation and buildings, non-adapted tools, and employers’ prejudice and fears
The study found out that some respondents found strengthening of government policies on disability, as a way out of poverty with 10 respondents. A respondent was quoted:
...we have heard about several policies in favor of PWDs, but I don’t see much of their impact. If only these policies were implemented and strengthened, poverty will become insignificant among PWDs.
That shows how much PWD need advocacy as a way of striving out of poverty.
Various measures can be considered as instrumental strategies in fighting widespread poverty amongst disabled people. This primarily includes different kinds of remunerated employment schemes as well as policies, legislation and welfare provisions. Together, these may facilitate the creation of inclusive society, which allows disabled people develop their economic potentials and ultimately strengthen their independent life (researcher).
Also the CBR workers argued that PWDs, who express interest in starting a business or improving their current business activities, can be assisted through small business development strategy. These can include people who have completed a place in a vocational training course, a traineeship; or already have the technical skills necessary for their business. And all PWDs who are assisted through the small business development strategy should have an idea of the type of business they want to start. If they do not have a business idea but need employment support they will require further employment advice and counseling.
Most of the PWDs require various types of aids and appliances for functional independence, mobility and activities of daily living. The type of assistive devices required by a PWD depends on the type and degree of disability and the living environment of the PWD. The cost of the assistive device is an additional cost without which the PWD may not be able to carry out activities of daily living this is an additional minimum cost for the PWD. The government already implements a scheme of assistance for disabled persons for purchase/fitting of aids and appliances, with the main objective of assisting the needy persons with disability in procuring durable, sophisticated, and scientifically manufactured modern, standard aids and appliances.
In order to permit easy mobility and for activities of daily living, there is a need to modify the houses that PWDs stay in (here we are focusing on PWDs basically as consumers). The modifications needed, again would depend on the type and degree of disability. For example, an orthopedically handicapped person on a wheel chair requires doors, including that of the toilet, to be minimum 90 cm, with horizontal and vertical grab bars, especially in toilets.
A visually impaired person may require embossed markings on different parts of the house, including on the floor, to carry out activities of daily living. It is estimated that it can cost about 5% to 7% of the building costs to incorporate barrier free features. The respondent opined that even if locally available materials and skills are used for adding these features in a house of a PWD.
Respondent said that permitting PWDs to live independently and carry out activities like cooking, cleaning, personal hygiene etc., the gadgets used need suitable modifications. For example, a visually impaired person may need a milk boiler (which whistles when milk boils) rather than an ordinary container. A person with cerebral palsy may require a flexible handle in a spoon, a handle for holding a plate for eating, a special chair to sit (a multi-purpose seat) and so on. Here again, the requirements may differ from person to person, but an element of additional cost needs to be built in. said the CDO.
In many cases, houses may not have been modified, and suitable assistive devices and gadgets may not be available. In such cases, the assistance of family members or professionals may be required for the PWD to carry out activities of daily living. Here, there is the need to cost the payment made to professionals along with the opportunity costs to the family or community.
In most instances, the family members care for PWDs, along with their other duties, hence only a part of their wages could be imputed to be included in the cost of living of PWDs.
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction
The data was analyzed using description and percentages. This chapter therefore presents the discussion of the study in sub-sections on the basis of the specific objectives set to achieve as analyzed in chapter four, the conclusion, and recommendations.
5.1 Discussion of findings
5.1.1 Factors contributing to increased poverty among PWDs
The study findings shows that illiteracy was one of the greatest factors that led to poverty among PWDs as indicated by (9) respondents. This is because poverty brings about other risk factors like lack of knowledge and skills as well as lack of qualifications.The next highest factors were denial of jobs due to impairments with 8respondents. Most respondents said that PWDs are not given always given regular jobs like normal people. This kind of discrimination and stigma towards them has made them to be jobless and thus, lack of source of income leads to higher levels of poverty.Further, the study findings showed that another factor that has led to higher prevalent rates of PWDs are low wages due to low productivity, as well as inability to access social services and public utilities, which both was said by6respondents. The study finsigs side line with World Bank (2004), “Persons with disabilities on average as a group experience worse socioeconomic outcomes than persons without disabilities, such as less education, worse health outcomes, less employment, and higher poverty rates.” These reduced outcomes may be attributed to a myriad of institutional barriers and other factors. Furthermore, the prevalence of disabilities in impoverished populations has been predicted to follow a cyclical pattern by which those who live in poverty are more likely to acquire a disability and those who have a disability are more likely to become impoverished.
5.1.2 Challenges faced by implementers of the existing poverty reduction strategy for PWDs
As shown in the findings in chapter four, 7 respondents said that implementers of the existing poverty reduction strategy for PWDs face a major challenge of the increasing population and limited resources allocated to PWDs programmes; therefore the planning process becomes hard. Study findings also found out that the education levels of PWDs were low, thus the implementers found it hard to introduce some programmes otherwise few would benefit. The findings agree with Engleman (1997), who stressed that rapid population growth is commonly to be a root cause of poverty population growth has influenced factors that contributed to poverty such as the growth inability of government to provide adequate situation health care services and education pressure relating to population growth contribute to lack of adequate housing and under mine social services and transportation networks on which livelihoods.
5.1.3 Possible strategies to alleviate poverty among PWDs.
Study findings revealed that respondents said IGA training with 100% of the respondents. Most of them urged that they lacked skills and special training in Economic activities, and they thought it wise to request that they be trained and equipped with skills so as they can strive out of poverty. They also required special training according to their special needs.The findings are in agreement with World Bank (2004), that stated that the income generation strategy consists of employment or direct job placement, vocational rehabilitation and small business development.International bodies, Governments at different levels, independent bodies, professionals and NGOs should provide technical and financial support for such research. These studies should also focus on working out separately the poverty line for persons with different disabilities, from different regions and for urban and rural areas.
5.2 Conclusion:
Available evidence from the study so far confirms that disability has a close relationship with chronic poverty. Further, evidence suggests that current policies and programmes aimed at poverty eradication in the community are inadequate in addressing matters of poverty among people with disabilities. In the first place the need for people with disabilities to “survive within structures that assume that people are able bodied”. Secondly, it is discrimination, rather than disability itself, which is at the heart of the exclusion experienced by disabled people thereby leading to a greater risk of poverty.
PWDs in Nadunget live in poverty, nutritional imbalances, poor housing, burden of dependents, limited access to medication, isolation and limited access to water and lastly, discrimination as a result of denial of jobs due to impairment, low wages because of low productivity, lack of Market for their goods and services, illiteracy, inability to access social services and public utilities. While increasing population, limited resources allocated to PWDs programmes, limited education levels of most PWDs.
However, suggestions to improve the welfare of PWDs include training in IGAs; need to put efforts in advocacy, revising, strengthening and proper implementation of policies that pay attention to the welfare of PWDs as well as their employment and the implementation of P.E.A.P, policy reviews, studying the cause of poverty hence giving solutions.
5.3Recommendations;
A specific, more precise estimate on additional cost of living for PWDs should be worked out. International bodies, Governments at different levels, independent bodies, professionals and NGOs should provide technical and financial support for such research.
There is need to educate, create awareness about the rights of PWDs in order to minimize the incidences of discrimination and stigma, isolation and other forms of inhuman treatment accorded to PWDs due to ignorance about their rights and entitlements, so as to reduce poverty and exploitation o f these PWDs.
To bring the PWDs on par with the rest of the population, schemes, programmes and projects should be initiated and the existing ones strengthened to provide the different facilities highlighted above, so as to promote equal opportunities to PWDS. The endeavor should be to provide facilities like non-handicapping environment, suitably modified gadgets and tools, requisite assistive devices ‘to reduce’ the dependence on family and community members for carrying on activities of daily living.
There is also strong need for government through its ministries such as the ministry of gender labor and social development, which is a custodian of all citizens in the country, to strengthen the national policy for PWDs so that special support and attention is given to PWDs just like any other grouping of people in the country. This should be backed up by strong strategies and work plans to effectively implement policies, draft applicable and relevant policies.
To break the vicious circle of poverty and disability, access facilities need to be provided throughout the nation at the earliest. An attempt may be made to provide, in phases, a universal design, for both buildings and the transport sector.
Pension and financial support to PWDs should be fixed, keeping in view the additional costs that they have to incur, compared to the rest of the population.
The wages/remuneration to PWDs may be worked out in terms of a realistic minimum cost of living rather than pegging it on the basis of the poverty line for the rest of the population.
Schools should also find ways of making their settings, such that they can take up all children, regardless of whether they have special needs or not. They should also make sure that all teachers employed have the knowledge of sign language, Braille and other special skills, so as to make it easy for incorporation of PWDs in ordinary schools. This in turn would decrease the levels of illiteracy among PWDs, rather increasing skills and knowledgeability which increase chance for employment.
